A. 用英語簡短介紹美國歷史 誰能幫我翻譯下，不要用GOOGLE，詞霸等翻譯工具，謝謝。
17 centuries ago, vast wilderness in North America only Indians and Eskimos live, but after over a hundred years of immigration, this place has become the new home of the peoples of Europe, of which the most important for the establishment of 13 state of the British colony of the 13 states colonies declared independence from the United Kingdom. After a consultation and reform, the federal system, the United States, on the eve of the French Revolution officially on the world stage. The early United States is welcoming foreign immigrants, these immigrants made her grow up fast. The U.S. population, in 1776 only 300 million people, but now more than 200 million. In the process of rapid population growth, the new living space, but also followed and constantly open up, while the direction from east to west extension of the pioneers of Xinjiang is not only engaged in livestock farming, but also to find minerals and other resources. By the 20th century, the United States not only has become a world power, and also in science, technology, medicine and military power of the advanced countries。
兄弟，全手打，給點分！
B. 用英文介紹美國歷史
Native Americans and European settlers
The indigenous peoples of the U.S. mainland, including Alaska Natives, are believed to have migrated from Asia, beginning between 12,000 and 40,000 years ago.Some, such as the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture, developed advanced agriculture, grand architecture, and state-level societies. After Europeans began settling the Americas, many millions of indigenous Americans died from epidemics of imported diseases such as smallpox.
In 1492, Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus, under contract to the Spanish crown, reached several Caribbean islands, making first contact with the indigenous people. On April 2, 1513, Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León landed on what he called "La Florida"—the first documented European arrival on what would become the U.S. mainland. Spanish settlements in the region were followed by ones in the present-day southwestern United States that drew thousands through Mexico. French fur traders established outposts of New France around the Great Lakes; France eventually claimed much of the North American interior, down to the Gulf of Mexico. The first successful English settlements were the Virginia Colony in Jamestown in 1607 and the Pilgrims' Plymouth Colony in 1620. The 1628 chartering of the Massachusetts Bay Colony resulted in a wave of migration; by 1634, New England had been settled by some 10,000 Puritans. Between the late 1610s and the American Revolution, about 50,000 convicts were shipped to Britain's American colonies. Beginning in 1614, the Dutch settled along the lower Hudson River, including New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island.
In 1674, the Dutch ceded their American territory to England; the province of New Netherland was renamed New York. Many new immigrants, especially to the South, were indentured servants—some two-thirds of all Virginia immigrants between 1630 and 1680.By the turn of the 18th century, African slaves were becoming the primary source of bonded labor. With the 1729 division of the Carolinas and the 1732 colonization of Georgia, the thirteen British colonies that would become the United States of America were established. All had local governments with elections open to most free men, with a growing devotion to the ancient rights of Englishmen and a sense of self-government stimulating support for republicanism. All legalized the African slave trade. With high birth rates, low death rates, and steady immigration, the colonial population grew rapidly. The Christian revivalist movement of the 1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening fueled interest in both religion and religious liberty. In the French and Indian War, British forces seized Canada from the French, but the francophone population remained politically isolated from the southern colonies. Excluding the Native Americans (popularly known as "American Indians"), who were being displaced, those thirteen colonies had a population of 2.6 million in 1770, about one-third that of Britain; nearly one in five Americans were black slaves. Though subject to British taxation, the American colonials had no representation in the Parliament of Great Britain.
C. 英文介紹關於美國的歷史
Native Americans and European settlersThe indigenous peoples of the U.S. mainland, including Alaska Natives, are believed to have migrated from Asia, beginning between 12,000 and 40,000 years ago.Some, such as the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture, developed advanced agriculture, grand architecture, and state-level societies. After Europeans began settling the Americas, many millions of indigenous Americans died from epidemics of imported diseases such as smallpox.In 1492, Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus, under contract to the Spanish crown, reached several Caribbean islands, making first contact with the indigenous people. On April 2, 1513, Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León landed on what he called "La Florida"—the first documented European arrival on what would become the U.S. mainland. Spanish settlements in the region were followed by ones in the present-day southwestern United States that drew thousands through Mexico. French fur traders established outposts of New France around the Great Lakes; France eventually claimed much of the North American interior, down to the Gulf of Mexico. The first successful English settlements were the Virginia Colony in Jamestown in 1607 and the Pilgrims' Plymouth Colony in 1620. The 1628 chartering of the Massachusetts Bay Colony resulted in a wave of migration; by 1634, New England had been settled by some 10,000 Puritans. Between the late 1610s and the American Revolution, about 50,000 convicts were shipped to Britain's American colonies. Beginning in 1614, the Dutch settled along the lower Hudson River, including New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island.In 1674, the Dutch ceded their American territory to England; the province of New Netherland was renamed New York. Many new immigrants, especially to the South, were indentured servants—some two-thirds of all Virginia immigrants between 1630 and 1680.By the turn of the 18th century, African slaves were becoming the primary source of bonded labor. With the 1729 division of the Carolinas and the 1732 colonization of Georgia, the thirteen British colonies that would become the United States of America were established. All had local governments with elections open to most free men, with a growing devotion to the ancient rights of Englishmen and a sense of self-government stimulating support for republicanism. All legalized the African slave trade. With high birth rates, low death rates, and steady immigration, the colonial population grew rapidly. The Christian revivalist movement of the 1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening fueled interest in both religion and religious liberty. In the French and Indian War, British forces seized Canada from the French, but the francophone population remained politically isolated from the southern colonies. Excluding the Native Americans (popularly known as "American Indians"), who were being displaced, those thirteen colonies had a population of 2.6 million in 1770, about one-third that of Britain; nearly one in five Americans were black slaves. Though subject to British taxation, the American colonials had no representation in the Parliament of Great Britain.
D. 美國歷史簡介英文版
美國人民是個勇敢而愛好自由的民族. 他們原本來自世界各地, 是許多不同的文化、種族和宗教, 經過長時期的共存結合而形成的, 漸漸他們以身為美國人而自豪.
17世紀以前, 北美廣大原野僅有印第安人和愛斯基摩人居住, 但經過百餘年的移民, 這里已成為歐洲國家人民的新家園, 而其中最主要為英國人所建立的13州殖民地, 這13州殖民地宣布脫離英國而獨立. 幾經協商與改革, 聯邦體制的美國, 於法國大革命前夕, 正式登上世界舞台. 早期的美國很歡迎外來的移民, 這些移民使她迅速地成長. 美國人口, 在1776 年只有300萬人, 而現在則超過2億. 在人口迅速增加的過程中, 新的生存空間, 也跟著不斷開拓, 而方向則由東向西, 拓疆的先驅們不但從事農耕畜牧, 也尋找礦產及其它資源. 到了20世紀,美國不但已成為世界強國, 並且也是科學、技術、醫葯及軍事力量的先進國家.
殖民時期以前(1607以前)
在兩萬多年前, 有一批來自亞洲的流浪者, 經由北美到中南美洲, 這些人就是印第安人的祖先. 當哥倫布發現新大陸時, 居住在美洲的印第安人, 約有2,000萬, 其中有大約100萬人住在現在的加拿大和美國中北部, 其餘絕大部分住在現在的墨西哥和美國南部. 大約1萬年前, 又有另一批亞洲人, 移居到北美北部, 這是後來的愛斯基摩人. 而最早到美洲的白種人大概是維京人, 他們是一群喜好冒險的捕漁人, 有人認為他們在1,000年前,曾到過北美東海岸. 殖民時期(1607～1753) 1607年, 一個約一百人的殖民團體, 在乞沙比克海灘建立了詹姆士鎮, 這是英國在北美所建的第一個永久性殖民地. 在以後150年中, 陸續涌來了許多的殖民者, 定居於沿岸地區, 其中大部分來自英國, 也有一部分來自法國、德國、荷蘭、愛爾蘭和其他國家. 18世紀中葉, 13個英國殖民地逐漸形成, 他們在英國的最高主權下有各自的政府和議會. 這13個殖民區因氣候和地理環境的差異, 造成了各地經濟形態、政治制度與觀念上的差別.
獨立運動(1754～1783)
18世紀中葉, 英國在美洲的殖民地與英國之間, 已有了裂痕. 殖民地的擴張, 使他們產生某種自覺, 自覺到英國的迫害, 而萌生獨立的念頭. 1774年, 來自12州的代表, 聚集在費城, 召開所謂第一次大陸會議, 希望能尋出一條合理的途徑, 與英國和平解決問題, 然而英王卻堅持殖民地必須無條件臣服於英王, 並接受處分. 1775年, 在麻州點燃戰火, 5月, 召開第二次大陸會議, 堅定了戰爭與獨立的決心, 並發表有名的獨立宣言, 提出充分的理由來打這場仗, 這也是最後致勝的要素. 1781年, 美軍贏得了決定性的勝利, 1783年, 美英簽定巴黎條約, 結束了獨立戰爭.
組成新政府(1784～1819)
革命的成功, 使美國人民有了以立法形式表達他們政治觀念的機會. 1787年, 在費城舉行聯邦會議, 會中華盛頓被推為主席, 他們採取一項原則, 即中央的權力是一般性的, 但必須有審慎的規定和說明, 同時, 他們也接受一項事實, 那就是全國性政府必須有稅收、鑄造貨幣、調整商業、宣戰及締結條約的權力. 此外, 為了防止中央權力過大, 而採取孟德斯鳩的均權政治學說, 即政府中設置三個平等合作與制衡的部門, 即立法、行 政、司法三種權力相互調和, 制衡而不使任何一權占控制地位.
向西擴張(1820～1849)
19世紀初期, 數以千計的人, 越過阿帕拉契山, 向西移動, 有些開拓者, 移居到美國的邊界, 甚至深入屬於墨西哥的領地、以及介於阿拉斯加與加利福尼亞的俄勒岡. 開拓者勇敢、勤奮地向西尋求更好的生活.
南北沖突(1850～1869)
引起內戰的原因, 不單是經濟上、政治上、軍事上的問題, 還包括了思想上的沖突. 內戰暴露了美國的弱點. 對這個國家的存在, 作了一番考驗. 經過了這次考驗, 美國才步向一個中央集權化之現代國家的坦途. 南北之間, 為奴隸問題而起爭執, 南方在全國政治上的主要方針, 就在保護和擴大"棉花與奴隸"制度所代表的利益；而北部各州, 主要是製造業、商業和 金融的中心, 這些生產無需依賴奴隸, 這種經濟上和政治上的沖突都是由來已久的. 1860年代初期, 11個南方的州脫離聯邦, 另組政府, 北方則表示, 為了統一將不惜付出任何代價. 1861年, 內戰爆發了, 這場美國人面對面的流血戰, 打了四年, 南方遭到嚴重的破壞, 而且留下深深的傷痕. 1865年, 北方戰勝了, 這項勝利不但顯示美國回復統一, 而且, 從此全國各地不再施行奴隸制度.
工業化與改革(1870～1916)
19世紀初期, 美國開始工業化, 而內戰之後, 則步入成熟階段. 在從內戰至第一次世界大戰的不到50年時間內, 她從一個農村化的共和國變成了城市化的國家. 機器代替了手工,產品大量增加. 全國性的鐵道網, 增進了貨品流通. 應大眾的需要, 許多新發明應市了. 銀行業提供貸款, 促成工商業經營的擴大. 故從1890到1917年的近30年間被稱為所謂"進步時期", 1914 年, 世界大戰爆發, 1917年,美國終於被捲入大戰漩渦中, 並且在世界上嘗試扮演新的角色.
世界的新地位(1917～1929)
在戰後的10年間, 美國的社會與文化可說是個無生氣、無感情, 屬於商人階級的10年. 據1929年統計, 居城 與居鄉的比率是56%∶44%, 這時舉凡現代生活的特色, 諸如汽車、電話、收音機、洗衣機, 已成為生活的必需品. 戰後經濟呈現極度的繁榮, 原因有二, 一為政府不再干涉私營企業且有立法保護之, 二為新技術的帶 動. 雖然經濟成長很快, 但是基礎不穩.
不景氣時代和第二次世界大戰(1930～1959)
經濟大恐慌, 影響的不只是美國, 世界各國都受到它的打擊, 經濟大恐慌, 使上百萬的工人失業, 大批的農人被迫放棄耕地, 工廠商店關門, 銀行倒閉…… 一片蕭條. 1932年, 羅斯福當選總統, 他主張政府應拿出行動來結束經濟大恐慌, 新政府雖然解決了許多的困難, 但美國的經濟還是要到二次大戰, 才蘇醒起來. 第二次世界大戰之後, 美蘇兩國, 關系日趨惡化, 分別在軍事、政治、經濟、宣傳各方面, 加緊准備, 一如戰時, 這種狀態, 被稱為"冷戰".
1960年以來
美國歷史自1960以來, 許多方面仍是戰後發展的延續. 經濟方面, 除了周期性的不景氣, 則仍不斷膨脹；從 城市移居到郊區的人口, 繼續增加, 1970年, 居郊人口超過了居城人口. 1960年初期, 黑人問題成為美國內部最主要的問題.
1960年代中期, 許多美國人開始不滿政府的對外政策. 此外, 由於工業的發展, 人口的集中, 60年代後期, 生態環境的污染廣受注意. 70年代初期, 由於能源危機而導致的經濟蕭條, 是大恐慌以來, 最嚴重的一次.
70年代中期, 經濟一度復甦, 但到70年代未期, 又出現通貨膨脹. 1976年, 美國建國200周年, 全國舉行各項慶祝活動. 1981年4月12日, 美國成功地發射"哥倫比亞號"太空梭, 將人類又帶入另一個太空新紀元. 1985年, 里根連任總統, 在日新月異的人類發展史中,美國將展開新的一頁.
E. 誰能寫美國歷史簡介(英文版)
The United States of America is a country of the western hemisphere, comprising fifty states and several territories. Forty-eight contiguous states lie in central North America between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bound on land by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south; Alaska is in the northwest of the continent with Canada to its east, and Hawaii is in the mid-Pacific. The United States is a federal constitutional republic; Washington, its capital, is coextensive with the District of Columbia (D.C.), the federal capital district.
At over 3.7 million square miles (over 9.6 million km�0�5) and with over 300 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area and third largest by population. With a gross domestic proct (GDP) of over $13 trillion, the U.S. has the largest national economy in the world. GDP per capita ranks first among the larger economies of the world, and third or eighth overall, depending on the measurement. The proct of large-scale historical immigration and home to a complex social structure as well as a wide array of household arrangements,[7] the U.S. is one of the world's most ethnically and socially diverse nations.
The nation was founded by thirteen colonies declaring their independence from Great Britain on July 4, 1776 as the new nation, the "United States of America." It adopted the current constitution (which has been amended several times subsequently) on September 17, 1787. The country greatly expanded in territory throughout the 19th century, acquiring further territory from Great Britain, as well as lands from France, Mexico, Spain, and Russia. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, it became the world's sole remaining superpower, and is a declared nuclear weapons state. The United States continues to exert dominant economic, political, cultural and military influence around the globe.
美利堅合眾國（英語：United States of America），通稱美國，舊稱花旗國，是位於北美洲的聯邦共和制國家，也是世界上最為悠久的共和立憲制國家。
美國本土東瀕大西洋，西臨太平洋，北靠加拿大，南接墨西哥及墨西哥灣。首都為華盛頓哥倫比亞特區。
美國源自於1776年脫離英國統治的北美殖民地，13州的殖民地代表一同發表了《美國獨立宣言》，在經歷艱苦的獨立戰爭後，於1783年與英國簽訂了巴黎協約，從此受到世界各國的承認。
經過兩百多年的發展，美國國土不斷拓展，37個州陸續加入聯邦旗下。目前有50個州，1個聯邦直轄特區，以及若干海外領地。國土面積超過962萬平方公里，是世界上第三國土面積的國家。美國有3億居民，人口數量位居世界第三。美國國旗上的50顆白色星星代表50個州；每當新州加入聯邦，次年的7月4日國旗將增加一顆星。國旗上紅色及白色橫條各7及6條，共13條，紀念最初的13個州。
建國200多年以來，美國曾經歷過內戰（1861—65年）和經濟大恐慌（1930年代）兩次嚴酷考驗，仍堅守自由民主制政治制度，成為憲法民主和公民自由的代表性國家。美國龐大的經濟、文化、科技、和軍事影響力貫穿了整個20世紀。在第一次世界大戰和第二次世界大戰中，美國和同盟國一同獲得勝利，並經歷數十年的冷戰後終於拖垮蘇聯，成為世界上唯一的超級大國[5]。當今美國在全世界的經濟、政治、軍事等眾多領域的龐大影響力都是無他國能比的。
F. 我想要一個關於美國發展歷史的英文介紹，謝謝了，最好要中英對照！急啊！多謝！！
美國 [United States]正式名稱美利堅合眾國。
北美洲聯邦共和國。領土包括美洲大陸中緯度地區48個連成一片的州、北美洲西北端的阿拉斯加州，以及太平洋中部的島州夏威夷。面積：(包括五大湖)9,529,063平方千米。人口：約286,067,000(2001)。首都：華盛頓特區。人口包括白人、非洲裔美國人、西班牙裔美國人、亞洲人、太平洋島民、美洲印第安人(美洲土著)、愛斯基摩人及阿留申人。語言：英語(主要語言)、西班牙語。宗教：新教、天主教、猶太教和伊斯蘭教。貨幣：美元。地形由山脈、平原、低地和沙漠構成。山脈包括阿巴拉契亞山脈、歐扎克山、落基山脈、喀斯喀特山脈和內華達山脈。最低點是加利福尼亞州的死谷。最高點是阿拉斯加山脈的麥金利山，而在美國本土，最高點則是惠特尼山。主要河流是密西西比河系、科羅拉多河、哥倫比亞河和格蘭德河。五大湖、大鹽湖和奧基喬比湖為幾個最大的湖。美國是世界某些礦產的主要生產國，包括銅、銀、鋅、金、煤、石油和天然氣；也是食品的主要輸出國。製造業包括鋼鐵產品、化學製品、電子產品和紡織品。其他重要行業為旅遊業、奶製品業、畜牧業、漁業和木材加工業。美國是兩院制共和國。總統為國家元首和政府首腦。數千年以前已有一些美洲印第安人定居在這塊領土，他們可能是來自亞洲。16世紀歐洲人來此探險和定居，開始取代印第安人。第一個歐洲人永久居民點是由西班牙人於1565年在佛羅里達州建立的聖奧古斯丁，後來英國人在弗吉尼亞州詹姆斯敦(1607)、馬薩諸塞州普里茅斯(1620)、馬里蘭州(1634)和賓夕法尼亞州(1681)建立定居點。在卡羅來納被授予英國貴族一年後，1664年英國人從荷蘭人手中奪走紐約、新澤西和德拉瓦。英國人於1763年擊敗法國人(參閱法英北美殖民地爭奪戰[French and Indian War])，在政治上控制了13個殖民地。英國殖民政策引起的政治動亂，以美國獨立戰爭(1775～1783)和《獨立宣言》(1776)而告結束。美國在《邦聯條例》(1781)下首次組織起來，終於通過憲法(1787)成為聯邦共和國。隨後確認了西至密西西比河的美國疆界，但並不包括西班牙的屬地佛羅里達。通過1803年的路易斯安那購地，美國從法國人手中購得的土地使美國領土幾乎增加一倍。美國在1812年戰爭中與英國開戰，1819年從西班牙人手中奪得佛羅里達。1830年通過立法手段將美洲印第安人遷移到密西西比河以西的土地。19世紀中葉開始向西部擴張，特別是1848年在加利福尼亞州發現金礦以後(參閱淘金熱[gold rush])。美國在墨西哥戰爭(1846～1848)中取得的勝利，使後來的7個州(包括加利福尼亞和得克薩斯)的部分或全部領土並入美國。1846年美國與英國簽訂條約確立其西北部疆界，在1853年加茲登購地中又獲得亞利桑那州南部的土地。後來南方蓄奴的種植園經濟和北方自由的工業與農業經濟之間存在的矛盾沖突使美國分裂，爆發了南北戰爭(1861～1865，參閱美國南北戰爭[American Civil War])。第十三條憲法修正案廢除了奴隸制。重建時期(1865～1877)以後，美國經歷了快速發展、都市化、工業開發和歐洲移民。1877年美國准許把印第安人保留地的土地分給個別部落成員，致使大片土地落入白人手中。到19世紀末，美國的外貿得到發展並獲得海外領土，包括阿拉斯加、中途島、夏威夷群島、菲律賓群島、波多黎各、關島、威克島、美屬薩摩亞、巴拿馬運河區和維爾京群島。1917～1918年美國參加了第一次世界大戰。1920年給予婦女選舉權；1924年給予美洲印第安人公民權。1929年的股市崩潰導致大蕭條。日本人偷襲珍珠港(1941-12-07)之後美國加入第二次世界大戰。美國在日本廣島投下第一顆原子彈(1945-08-06)，在長崎投下第二顆原子彈(1945-08-09)，導致這場戰爭結束，並使美國成為西方世界的領袖。美國參與了歐洲和日本的戰後重建工作，但卻陷入與蘇聯長達40年的冷戰對抗。美國參加了朝鮮戰爭。1952年給予波多黎各自治地位。1954年宣布在美國學校中實行的種族隔離違反了美國憲法。1959年阿拉斯加和夏威夷成為美國的兩個州。1964年國會通過《民權法》，並授權全面干預越南戰爭。20世紀60年代中至末期美國國內各地發生騷亂，包括種族暴亂和反戰示威。1969年美國完成首次人類登陸月球。1973年美軍全部撤出越南。在波斯灣戰爭(1991)中，美國領導聯軍攻打伊拉克。1992年派兵到索馬里救援飢民。1995年和1999年加入北大西洋公約組織空襲前南斯拉夫的塞爾維亞軍隊。1998年W.J.柯林頓總統成為第二個要被美國眾議院彈劾的總統；1999年他被參議院宣布無罪。1999年巴拿馬運河的管理移交給了巴拿馬。2000年G.W.布希成為1888年以來盡管獲得的選票略低於對手A.戈爾，但仍被總統選舉團選為總統的第一人。2001年9月11日恐怖分子的攻擊摧毀了世界貿易中心和五角大樓的部分建築以後，美國以藏匿並拒絕引渡此次恐怖活動的策劃嫌疑本·拉登為由，派兵向阿富汗的塔利班政府發動進攻。
United States
officially United States of America
Federal republic, North America.
It comprises 48 contiguous states occupying the mid-continent, Alaska at the northwestern extreme of North America, and the island state of Hawaii in the mid-Pacific Ocean. Area, including the U.S. share of the Great Lakes: 3,675,031 sq mi (9,518,287 sq km). Population (2002 est.): 287,602,000. Capital: Washington, D.C. The population includes people of European and Middle Eastern ancestry, African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians (Native Americans), and Alaska Natives. Languages: English (predominant), Spanish. Religions: Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, Islam. Currency: U.S. dollar. The country's regions encompass mountains, plains, lowlands, and deserts. Mountain ranges include the Appalachians, Ozarks, Rockies, Cascades, and Sierra Nevada. The lowest point is Death Valley, Calif. The highest point is Alaska's Mount McKinley; within the coterminous U.S. it is Mount Whitney, Calif. Chief rivers are the Mississippi system, the Colorado, the Columbia, and the Rio Grande. The Great Lakes, the Great Salt Lake, and Lake Okeechobee are the largest lakes. The U.S. is among the world's leading procers of several minerals, including copper, silver, zinc, gold, coal, petroleum, and natural gas; it is the chief exporter of food. Its manufactures include iron and steel, chemicals, electronic equipment, and textiles. Other important instries are tourism, dairying, livestock raising, fishing, and lumbering. The U.S. is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president. The territory was originally inhabited for several thousand years by numerous American Indian peoples who had probably emigrated from Asia. European exploration and settlement from the 16th century began displacement of the Indians. The first permanent European settlement, by the Spanish, was at Saint Augustine, Fla., in 1565; the British settled Jamestown, Va. (1607); Plymouth, Mass. (1620); Maryland (1634); and Pennsylvania (1681). The British took New York, New Jersey, and Delaware from the Dutch in 1664, a year after the Carolinas had been granted to British noblemen. The British defeat of the French in 1763 (see French and Indian War) assured British political control over its 13 colonies. Political unrest caused by British colonial policy culminated in the American Revolution (1775–83) and the Declaration of Independence (1776). The U.S. was first organized under the Articles of Confederation (1781), then finally under the Constitution (1787) as a federal republic. Boundaries extended west to the Mississippi River, excluding Spanish Florida. Land acquired from France by the Louisiana Purchase (1803) nearly doubled the country's territory. The U.S. fought the War of 1812 against the British and acquired Florida from Spain in 1819. In 1830 it legalized removal of American Indians to lands west of the Mississippi River. Settlement expanded into the Far West in the mid-19th century, especially after the discovery of gold in California in 1848 (see gold rush). Victory in the Mexican War (1846–48) brought the territory of seven more future states (including California and Texas) into U.S. hands. The northwestern boundary was established by treaty with Great Britain in 1846. The U.S. acquired southern Arizona by the Gadsden Purchase (1853). It suffered disunity ring the conflict between the slavery-based plantation economy in the South and the free instrial and agricultural economy in the North, culminating in the American Civil War and the abolition of slavery under the 13th Amendment. After Reconstruction (1865–77) the U.S. experienced rapid growth, urbanization, instrial development, and European immigration. In 1877 it authorized allotment of American Indian reservation land to indivial tribesmen, resulting in widespread loss of land to whites. By the end of the 19th century, it had developed foreign trade and acquired outlying territories, including Alaska, Midway Island, the Hawaiian Islands, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, Wake Island, American Samoa, the Panama Canal Zone, and the Virgin Islands. The U.S. participated in World War I in 1917–18. It granted suffrage to women in 1920 and citizenship to American Indians in 1924. The stock market crash of 1929 led to the Great Depression. The U.S. entered World War II after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941). The explosion by the U.S. of an atomic bomb on Hiroshima (Aug. 6, 1945) and another on Nagasaki (Aug. 9, 1945), Japan, brought about Japan's surrender. Thereafter the U.S. was the military and economic leader of the Western world. In the first decade after the war, it aided the reconstruction of Europe and Japan and became embroiled in a rivalry with the Soviet Union known as the Cold War. It participated in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. In 1952 it granted autonomous commonwealth status to Puerto Rico. Racial segregation in schools was declared unconstitutional in 1954. Alaska and Hawaii were made states in 1959. In 1964 Congress passed the Civil Rights Act and authorized U.S. entry into the Vietnam War. The mid-to late 1960s were marked by widespread civil disorder, including race riots and antiwar demonstrations. The U.S. accomplished the first manned lunar landing in 1969. All U.S. troops were withdrawn from Vietnam in 1973. The U.S. led a coalition of forces against Iraq in the First Persian Gulf War (1991), sent troops to Somalia (1992) to aid starving populations, and participated in NATO air strikes against Serbian forces in the former Yugoslavia in 1995 and 1999. In 1998 Pres. Bill Clinton became only the second president to be impeached by the House of Representatives; he was acquitted by the Senate in 1999. Administration of the Panama Canal was turned over to Panama in 1999. In 2000 George W. Bush became the first person since 1888 to be elected president by the electoral college despite having won fewer popular votes than his opponent, Al Gore. After the September 11 attacks on the U.S. in 2001 destroyed the World Trade Center and part of the Pentagon, the U.S. attacked Afghanistan's Taliban government for harbouring and refusing to extradite the mastermind of the terrorism, Osama bin Laden.